Making the Most of Census Records
by Andrew J. Morris

Census records are one of the most basic resources used by genealogists. These records include a wealth of information that is obviously useful to researchers, as well as hidden clues that are less obvious but equally useful. Their use must be tempered with a good dose of skepticism however, as they are by their nature full of flaws.
Census records can give us clues that open up our family histories. Many beginners get so enthusiastic with what they find in census records that they go no further -- that is a big mistake. Others take down information that looks helpful, then never give that census another thought. That can be a mistake too, as we will see - it is often useful to go back to the census records as we uncover further information from other sources.

There are a wide variety of census records, from various countries and many time periods. It is an ancient form of governmental record-keeping. In the Bible it was because of the census that Joseph and Mary had to go to Bethlehem. One of the most famous surviving census records is the Domesday Book from England, which dates from 1085 A.D.

In addition to actual census records, we often have recourse to what are termed 'census substitutes' -- records that have some of the characteristics of censuses, and that may be used to the same end. Early census records are often what are called "head of household" censuses, since only the head of each family is mentioned by name. Certain tax and property records may serve the same function as a head-of-household census, if it is widespread enough to encompass a large proportion of the households.

Censuses were primarily designed to allow the government to assess taxes, or determine what the pool of available military-age men might be. They also provided a count of citizens, and perhaps a count of eligible voters for a particular area.

Beginning in the 1800's, various governments were persuaded that the census could serve certain social ends, in addition to their traditional functions of property evaluation and/or military assessment. To this end, additional information began to be gathered. The birthplace of individuals could help identify migration patterns. Questions could be asked regarding literacy, fluency, race, occupation, religion, relationships, mortality and more. ALL of the additional data these more modern censuses provide can be used by the genealogist to better understand their ancestors.

However complete or incomplete the information a particular census provides, the genealogist needs to keep in mind that census records tend to be full of errors. One need only consider the source of information, and how it is collected, to understand how errors are likely to creep in. Some people are suspicious of government in any guise, and purposely mislead the census taker. Others simply give erroneous information because they don't know the correct answers. The census taker is likely to be over-worked, and may get careless. It was not unusual for records to be taken down in the field, then transcribed onto clean, official forms at some later date -- and any transcription is subject to errors. No census is complete, there are always people who get missed, either through mistake, or because they don't want to be included. It has also been known to occur that persons, or entire families are listed more than once. Remote communities sometimes expected to gain from inflating their populations! Unscrupulous census takers who were paid according to the number of entries they made were also motivated to repeat -- or create fictitious -- entries.

Census records are often indexed, some of those indexes provide every name in the census records, others only the head of each household and others in that household with surnames that differ from the head of household. These indexes are wonderful tools. Like the census records themselves, they are rife with errors, but if you keep that in mind, and use them judiciously they can save you hours of searching. Since the original records are usually handwritten, it is easy for mis-readings to occur. The motivations of the persons doing the transcription must be considered -- if they get paid regardless of how accurate the transcription, some people will not make an effort to be accurate. The qualifications of the transcriber can also affect quality. Volunteers are hard to find, and experienced volunteers are even more elusive. When the original records are faded, or in the hand of a poor writer, even the best transcriber will make some mistakes.

The novice genealogist will sometimes make the grand gaffe of citing a census index as if it were itself a source. An index is a finding aid, it should never be used as the source of information. True, an index may indicate the place of residence for an individual at the time of a particular census, but always go to the original census record for full details. First, there will be much more information there, and secondly, you avoid perpetuating many of the mistakes inherent in the index. As a rule, all indexes should be treated as finding aids, not as sources in and of themselves. The only exception is in those rare cases when the original records have been destroyed, but an index remains.

This sounds like an intolerable situation doesn't it? Census indexes full of errors, based on original records that are themselves full of mistakes! But if you are aware of the potential problems, there is still a wealth of information available from census records. I like to think of the census record itself as a kind of index -- it provides an approximate date of birth, which allows me to find the birth or baptism record more easily; it provides an approximate marriage date, so I can find the marriage record more easily. If I don't find those records in the time and place suggested by the census, I suspect error in the census, and begin looking for other clues. By the same token, if I don't find someone listed in a census index where I think they should be, I may go directly to the census itself, assuming there is an error in the index.

Whenever possible, you should retain copies of the census pages where you find an ancestor, and even a page or two preceding and following the entry you are interested in. This will save you a great deal of time, since it is often helpful to go back to a census record in search of additional data, when new information becomes available. Look at the names of the neighbors. Are they the same folks who lived nearby in an entirely different location ten or twenty years earlier? They may have migrated together. Did an individual find a spouse from a neighboring farm? Are there relatives settled in the same area?

Look at all of the information available for any particular census. Don't neglect the information at the head of the page, or sometimes on the first page of the census for a locality, which gives information on the exact date the census was compiled, who was recording the information, and details about the location being surveyed. Is the recorder of a different nationality or religion than the family you are researching, and how might that influence the recording of details? Name spelling, in particular, is often influenced by the recorders idea of what is 'right' or reasonable.

In the 1900 U.S. census, the year of emigration is given for persons born in other countries. Are there others from the same country who arrived at the same time living in the same area? If you later find a ship's list, and these others are on the same ship as someone with the same name as your ancestor, you have supporting evidence that you have located the correct person, and not just someone of the same name. Also, you have identified an important relationship. Human social activity is based on relationships, and identifying those relationships can be informative.

America, for example, is made up of immigrants from all parts of the world. Very rarely do people new immigrants settle in some particular location just because they have heard it is a good place to be. Most will have friends or relatives who preceded them, and will choose to settle in the same area those kith and kin reside. Such relationships help the immigrant in finding work or a place of residence, and will be reflected in voluntary associations, such as fraternal groups and religious communities. These same social and kinship relationships will also be found in the sponsors and witnesses for vital and legal records. Each time you find evidence for an association, such as the witness on a marriage record, you should go back to the census to see where the new-found person resides, and any similarities in socio-economic status, migration patterns, or other factors for which the census provides evidence.

Census records can also help with the process of elimination that is sometimes needed. If you can show through a thorough search of the census that your John Smith is the only John Smith in a particular area, then that heightens the probability that the John Smith mentioned in a particular record for that region is indeed 'your' John Smith. Thus it is important to note other families in the area with the same surname as your ancestors. Sometimes these will turn out to be relatives, while in other cases they help with the process of elimination.

When looking for records, be sure to check every census available. Cross checking will help determine which facts are correct, and which are questionable. Don't forget that more than one level of government may conduct censuses, as for example in the U.S. where there are both Federal and State censuses available for most areas.

Check too for all of the census schedules available. There may be separate schedules for farms or businesses, special groups like slaves, veterans of a particular war, etc. There may even be mention of people not alive at the time of census, as in the case of mortality schedules. Mine all of the schedules for the area of interest for any facts they may yield.

Finally, compare what you find with the published census summaries. These summaries do not usually include the names of individuals, but they will give statistical information about a particular area. You can compare the details from the actual census for your ancestor with the statistics for that area, which will tell you how your ancestors fitted into the local society. Were they typical for the area, or in a small minority in one or another respect? Such evidence can enrich your understanding of your ancestors lives, and with better understanding you can better predict where to find further information.

Census records are a great boon to genealogists -- extract every bit of information you can get from them, then verify those details with supporting evidence from independant sources. Your knowledge of your ancestors will be richer for the effort.


Andrew J. Morris may be contacted at http://www.ajmorris.com ajmorrisdotcom@yahoo.com
The author, Andrew J. Morris, is a genealogist, traveller, archaeologist, writer and entrepreneur. Explore his eclectic endeavors at http://ajmorris.com/ and http://epmassoc.com/ and http://larimerco.com/ and http://sharedrss.com/